Lauren Bloor, LLM Criminology and Criminal Justice, University College Dublin
Introduction
In a seminal study, Laub and Sampson (2001) found that individuals who develop strong social ties across various aspects of their lives are less likely to engage in criminal activity, based on longitudinal data from a cohort of delinquent youths. Laub and Sampson’s age-graded theory of informal social control builds on Elder's life-course theory by highlighting how adult social ties, rather than solely early life experiences, influence criminal behaviour (Elder, 1994). Their theory was groundbreaking because it challenged the prevailing belief that childhood circumstances alone determined criminal paths and showed the potential for desistance from crime. Desistance is the process of abstaining from committing crimes and, as Maruna (2017) notes, “the heart of desistance research is a very simple idea: people can change”. Critically assessing their theory unveils the challenges and complexities associated with its application, while also considering its relevance within the context of the Irish criminal justice system.
Social Bonds and Desistance: An Overview
Laub and Sampson’s age-graded theory suggests that strong social bonds play a key factor in desisting from crime. Empirical investigations have looked at how social ties affect desistance, and the results have mostly confirmed the age-graded theory. DeShay and Vieraitis (2020) discovered that a sample of men and women's intermittent criminal conduct was influenced by the nature of their personal connections. Similarly, Cid and Mart (2017) stated that the desistance process among imprisoned men required social support from family and friends.
The application of the social bond theory has also been extended outside its initial foci. Mowen, Stansfield, and Boman (2019) discovered the importance of family support during the process of re-entering society, while Ziegler et al. (2017) found that parental experience and the strength of the parent-child bond were related to desistance. These findings demonstrate that social bond theory is still relevant in explaining desistance.
Doherty (2005) presents an assessment of an age-graded theory, discussing the conditional effects of life events in the desistance process, and emphasises the importance of turning moments and transition. Transitions, such as, “first marriage, high school graduation, or entrance into the military” have the potential to become turning points that promote desistance. (Elder, 1985).
Contemporary Social Context: Relevance of Social Bond Theory
In an era of globalisation, economic disparity, and technological advancement, it is difficult for people to form and sustain social relationships. Social bond theory has become increasingly relevant in the modern day, notably in the context of recidivism, which is the tendency of an individual to commit crime after being rehabilitated or punished. Academics Breese, Ra'el, and Grant (2000) found that adequate social support results in lower recidivism rates. Additionally, Grieb et al. (2014) discovered that the absence of social support was a significant source of stress for both released convicts and their families.
Employment has also been found to dramatically decreased reoffending rates (Denver, Siwach, and Bushway, 2017). Laub and Sampson's age-graded theory, which contends that participation in traditional activities reduces criminal conduct, is consistent with this conclusion.
There is evidence that strong family ties are linked to less criminal conduct and more adherence to traditional values (Krohn and Massey, 1980; Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber, 1986). Christian et al. (2006) examined the social and economic effects of family ties to inmates. The research discovered that the incarceration of a family member frequently has a detrimental effect on the family.
In Mexican drug cartel-dominated neighbourhoods, Chomczyski and Clark (2022) found that shared paths create social ties that can make it difficult for individuals to desist from crime. Similar findings were made by DeShay and Vieraitis (2020), who showed that people who are trying to desist from crime may struggle, as their relationships can lead to unstable work patterns. However, resources such as social media, online forums, and flexible work schedules may offer venues for fostering and maintaining interpersonal relationships (Coyle, 2019).
Navigating Desistance Challenges in Ireland: The Relevance of Social Bond Theory
In Ireland's criminal justice system, the application of Laub and Sampson's theory to the process of desistance is particularly important considering contemporary challenges, such as overcrowding in Irish prisons. On 2 February 2023, there were 4,416 people in custody in Ireland, with 797 on remand, illustrating the strain on the system. Notably, Limerick (Female) Prison was operating at 164% capacity (IPRT, 2023), underscoring the urgency for effective interventions to address this crisis. Laub and Sampson's theory suggests that overcrowded and under-resourced prisons can weaken informal social bonds and increase the likelihood of reoffending.
Global estimates suggest that between a quarter and two thirds of prisoners are reconvicted within 2 years of release (Fazel and Wolf, 2015), making it clear that innovative and evidence-based programs to enhance prisoners' prospects of desistance are urgently needed (O’Sullivan, Hart, Healy, 2018). O’Sullivan, Hart and Healy’s research explores volunteers' experiences of the Community Based Health and First Aid (CBHFA) program, which aims to improve community health, hygiene awareness, and first aid knowledge among prisoners through peer-to-peer education. The success of the CBHFA program has inspired other jurisdictions, such as Northern Ireland and Wales, to adopt similar initiatives (Betts-Symonds, 2015). The program nurtures new community and pro-social networks, developing deeper friendships, and encouraging the adoption of non-criminal identities (O’Sullivan, Hart, Healy, 2018). This aligns with Laub and Sampson's theory, which suggests that social bonds aid desistance by enhancing emotional attachments, altering daily routines, and helping people create new, crime-free lives (Laub and Sampson, 2001; Hirschi, 1969). Hirschi (1969) further suggests that pro-social attitudes, when reinforced by strong social bonds, can effectively deter individuals from engaging in criminal behaviour. This relationship between attitude and behaviour is exemplified in interactions between CBHFA volunteers and prison staff, highlighting the transformative impact of the program on participants' attitudes and behaviours.
The prevalence of short prison sentences demonstrates a glaring inefficiency in Irish rehabilitation efforts. With 74% of sentence committals in 2022 lasting 12 months or less, it's evident that these brief incarcerations fail to address the underlying issues driving criminality (IPRT, 2023). Short-term sentences often exacerbate rather than alleviate the problem, as they offer little time for meaningful interventions or support structures to take root. The brief nature of these sentences undermines the development of strong social bonds and can weaken an individual's attachment to pro-social influences. Resources should be redirected towards evidence-based interventions and community-based programs that strengthen social bonds and promote desistance.
Strengthening Social Bonds for Desistance: Potential Initiatives in Modern Irish Prisons
Irish prisons can implement a range of initiatives to encourage desistance from criminal behaviour.
High-Tech Environment
It has been posited that prisoners “constitute one of the most impoverished groups in the digital age” (Jewkes & Reisdorf, 2016, p. 1). Technology is used for “applying for jobs and benefits, conducting online banking, booking medical appointments, purchasing shopping and communicating with family, friends and acquaintances” (Palmer, Hatcher and Tonkin, 2020, p.7). The current underutilisation of technology has made it challenging for prisoners to reintegrate into society when released, as it contributes to the obstacle of gaining employment “which increasingly relies on technological literacy skills” (Palmer, Hatcher and Tonkin, 2020, p.7). Technology is ubiquitous in modern life, and inmates who lack familiarity with digital tools face challenges upon release. Technology in Irish prisons can enhance personal agency and autonomy amongst prisoners, as well as strengthen social bonds with family and friends (Palmer, Hatcher and Tonkin, 2020).
Restorative Justice Centre
Restorative justice is a process that "brings those harmed by crime or conflict, and those responsible for the harm, into communication, enabling everyone affected by a particular incident to play a part in repairing the harm and finding a positive way forward." (Restorative Justice Council, 2011, p. 4). Although it is becoming a more utilised method outside the prison setting, it has yet to receive the same level of consideration within prisons (Dhami et al., 2009). The fundamental concepts of desistance theory are consistent with the principles of restorative justice. The process allows offenders to develop empathy and understanding, which may not occur in the harsh regime of the traditional criminal justice system. It provides an opportunity for offenders to take responsibility for their actions, make amends, and contribute positively towards their own rehabilitation (Edgar and Newell, 2006). Victims have their voices heard and have a sense of justice being done (European Forum for Restorative Justice 1 Position Paper on the Evaluation of the Restorative Justice provisions of the Victims’ Rights Directive, n.d.).
Several studies have shown that restorative justice has favourable effects on the outcomes for offenders. Dhami et al. (2009) discovered that participants in restorative justice programs experienced lower rates of recidivism than non-participants.
Biophilic Prison Design
Biophilic prisons incorporate natural elements into their design to connect inmates to nature, creating a more therapeutic and supportive prison environment that can bring about positive behavioural changes. A study conducted by Farrier, Baybutt and Dooris (2019) found that the “horticultural programme studied proved beneficial to prisoner participants, the most marked effect was on mental health and wellbeing”. Such programmes can strengthen social bonds and teamwork skills as well as their physical and emotional health. These programmes can teach important skills that will be helpful after release, for instance, expanding job opportunities and lowering the risk of reoffending.
The use of biophilic architecture in prisons has already seeped into Irish prison architecture, and can be seen in the new women’s prison in Limerick. The prison design has been carefully planned to provide inmates with access to natural light and greenery, which can improve mental health and well-being (Söderlund and Newman, 2017). The building features a central courtyard that allows natural light to flood the communal spaces, and greenery provides a calming and visually appealing environment for the inmates. The incorporation of biophilic design can create a more humane environment for prisoners, which can lead to better rehabilitation outcomes.
Critique of Laub and Sampson’s Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control
The age-graded theory of informal social control is still a useful conceptualisation of desistance, however, it has certain limitations.
Given the modifications to social structures and employment prospects since Laub and Sampson's research, the theory's application to modern social circumstances has been scrutinised. The age-graded theory emphasises individual-level factors while ignoring the influence of structural and systemic factors on desistance. Chomczyski and Clark (2022) investigate how Mexican drug cartel-dominated neighbourhoods influence the trajectory of crime and desistance. They contend that it is challenging for people to leave a life of crime due to the interaction between criminal organisations, the state, and local inhabitants' social and economic circumstances. This study highlights the significance of taking macro-level variables into account while analysing desistance and its determinants.
Different theoretical stances might offer a more thorough view of the function of social ties in desistance in modern social circumstances. Laub and Sampson's age-graded theory of informal social control focuses primarily on white male individuals, and neglects to consider that other demographic, racialised and cultural groups are affected by entrenched social, political and economic issues such as prejudice and exclusion which may influence criminal activity, as seen in Chomczyski. This omission reveals a flaw in their theory, as it fails to account for diverse experiences.
Doherty (2005) noted that “incarceration, which is usually thought of as a negative event, could function as a deterrent, indicating a positive outcome, and thus could be considered a positive life event. On the other hand, the parallel example of marriage, typically considered a positive life event, could in fact be abusive and thus would be retrospectively labelled as a negative event. This draws attention to a flaw in Laub and Sampson's theory since it contends that the benefits of social control mechanisms are not always universal and may vary depending on a person's specific situation. It might not be sufficient to merely concentrate on these life experiences as deterrence mechanisms without taking into account the complexity and nuances of how they might act in various circumstances.
Conclusion
Laub and Sampson's age-graded theory of informal social control has provided invaluable insights into the role of social bonds in promoting desistance from criminal behaviour. Their pioneering research highlighted the significance of social ties in various life domains in steering individuals away from criminal activities. Moving forward, a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the interplay between social bonds and desistance is needed to inform effective interventions and policies aimed at reducing recidivism and promoting rehabilitation in modern society, particularly within the unique context of the Irish criminal justice system.
Comentários